Resources

Example (can be adapted by author):
SITE NAME by AUTHOR NAME has been created from a combination of original content and materials compiled and adapted from a number of open text publications, including:

Bargh, J. A. (2006). What have we been priming all these years? On the development, mechanisms, and ecology of nonconscious social behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36(2), 147-168. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.336

Bohner, G., Moskowitz, G. B., & Chaiken, S. (1995). The interplay of heuristic and systematic processing of social information. European Review of Social Psychology, 6(1), 33-68. https://doi.org/10.1080/14792779443000003

Brewer, M. B. (1979). In-group bias in the minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive-motivational analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 86(2), 307–324. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.2.307

Brewer, M. B. (1993). Social identity, distinctiveness, and in-group homogeneity. Social Cognition, 11(1), 150–164. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.1993.11.1.150

Brooks, H. R., & Sokol-Hessner, P. (2020). Quantifying the immediate computational effects of preceding outcomes on subsequent risky choices. Nature: Scientific Reports, 10, 9878. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-66502-y

Buttelmann, D., & Böhm, R. (2014). The ontogeny of the motivation that underlies in-group bias. Psychological Science, 25(4), 921-927. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613516802

Chasteen, A. L., Schwarz, N., & Park, D. C. (2002). The activation of aging stereotypes in younger and older adults. Journals of Gerontology: Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57(6), 540–547. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/57.6.p540

Coricelli, G., Critchley, H. D., Joffily, M., O’Doherty, J. P., Sirigu, A., & Dolan, R. J. (2005). Regret and its avoidance: A neuroimaging study of choice behavior. Nature Neuroscience, 8(9), 1255–1262. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1514

D’Alessio, D., & Allen, M. (2002). Selective exposure and dissonance after decisions. Psychological Reports, 91(2), 527–532. https://doi.org/10.2466/PR0.91.6.527-532

Doosje, B., Ellemers, N., & Spears, R. (1995). Perceived intragroup variability as a function of group status and identification. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 31(5), 410–436. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1995.1018

Doyen, S., Klein, O., Simons, D. J., & Cleeremans, A. (2014). On the other side of the mirror: Priming in cognitive and social psychology. Social Cognition, 32(spec issue), 12-32. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2014.32.supp.12

Eckel, C. C., & Grossman, P. J. (2008). Men, women, and risk aversion: Experimental evidence. In V. L. Smith & C. R. Plott (Eds). Handbook of Experimental Economics Results (Vol. 1, pp. 1061-1073). North Holland. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1574-0722(07)00113-8

Epley, N., & Gilovich, T. (2001). Putting adjustment back in the anchoring and adjustment heuristic: Differential processing of self-generated and experimenter-provided anchors. Psychological Science, 12(5), 391–396. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00372

Fabio, R. A., Capri, T., & Romano, M. (2019). From controlled to automatic processes and back again: The role of contextual features. European Journal of Psychology, 15(4), 773-788. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v15i4.1746

Fernandez, R., & Rodrik, D. (1991). Resistance to reform: Status quo bias in the presence of individual-specific uncertainty. The American Economic Review, 81(5), 1146-1155. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2006910

Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford University Press.

Fleming, S. M., Thomas, C. L., & Dolan, R. J. (2010). Overcoming status quo bias in the human brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 107(13), 6005-6009. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0910380107

Furnham, A., & Boo, H. C. (2011). A literature review of the anchoring effect. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 40(1), 35–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2010.10.008

Garcia-Marques, L., Santos, A. S. C., & Mackie, D. M. (2006). Stereotypes: Static abstractions or dynamic knowledge structures? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(5), 814-831. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.5.814

Hamilton, D. L., & Carlston, D. E. (2013). The emergence of social cognition. In D. E. Carlston (Ed.), Oxford handbook of social cognition (pp. 16–32). Oxford Academic. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199730018.013.0002

Hewstone, M., Rubin, M., & Willis, H. (2002). Intergroup Bias. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 575-604. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135109

Hugenberg, K., Young, S. G., Bernstein, M. J., & Sacco, D. F. (2010). The categorization-individuation model: An integrative account of the other-race recognition deficit. Psychological Review, 117(4), 1168–1187. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020463

Johnson, K. E. (2001). Impact of varying levels of expertise on decisions of category typicality. Memory & Cognition, 29(7), 1036-1050. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03195765

Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47(2), 263-91. https://doi.org/10.2307/1914185

Kappes, A., Harvey, A. H., Lohrenz, T., Montague, P. R., & Sharot, T. (2020). Confirmation bias in the utilization of others’ opinion strength. Nature Neuroscience, 23(1), 130–137. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-019-0549-2

Kunda, Z. & Spencer, S. J. (2003). When do stereotypes come to mind and when do they color judgment? A goal-based theoretical framework for stereotype activation and application. Psychological Bulletin, 129(4). 522-544. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-2909.129.4.522

Lerner, M. J., & Simmons, C. H. (1966). Observer’s reaction to the “innocent victim”: Compassion or rejection? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4(2), 203–210. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0023562

Liberman, Z., Woodward, A. L., & Kinzler, K.D. (2017). The origins of social categorization. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 21(7), 556-568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2017.04.004

Lieder, F., Griffiths, T. L., Huys, Q. J. M., Goodman, N. D. (2018). The anchoring bias reflects rational use of cognitive resources. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 25(1), 322-349. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-017-1286-8

Mellers, B. A., Schwartz, A., Ho, K., & Ritov, I. (1997). Decision affect theory: Emotional reactions to the outcomes of risky options. Psychological Science, 8(6), 423–429. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00455.x

McCarthy, R. J., & Skowronski, J. J. (2011). The interplay of controlled and automatic processing in the expression of spontaneously inferred traits: A PDP analysis. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 100(2), 229-240. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021991

Mitchell, J. P., Ames, D. L., Jenkins, A. C., & Banaji, M. R. (2009). Neural correlates of stereotype application. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21(3), 594-604. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2009.21033

Molden, D. C. (2014). Understanding priming effects in social psychology: What is “social priming” and how does it occur? Social Cognition, 32(spec issue), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2014.32.supp.1

Mynatt, C. R., Doherty, M. E., & Tweney, R. D. (1977). Confirmation bias in a simulated research environment: An experimental study of scientific inference. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 29(1), 85–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/00335557743000053

Ng, R. (2021). Societal age stereotypes in the U.S. and U.K. from a media database of 1.1 billion words. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(16), 8822. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168822

Park, B., & Rothbart, M. (1982). Perception of out-group homogeneity and levels of social categorization: Memory for the subordinate attributes of in-group and out-group members. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(6), 1051–1068. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.42.6.1051

Perdue, C. W., & Gurtman, M. B. (1990). Evidence for the automaticity of ageism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 26(3), 199-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(90)90035-K

Rakow, T., Cheung, N. Y., & Restelli, C. (2020). Losing my loss aversion: The effects of current and past environment on the relative sensitivity to losses and gains. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 27(6), 1333–1340. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-020-01775-y

Rhodes, M., & Baron, A. (2019). The development of social categorization. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology, 1, 359-386. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-084824

Rubin, Z., & Peplau, L. A. (1975). Who believes in a just world? Journal of Social Issues, 31(3), 65–89. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1975.tb00997.x

Samuelson, W., & Zeckhauser, R. (1988). Status quo bias in decision making. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 1, 7–59. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00055564

Shah, A. K., & Oppenheimer, D. M. (2008). Heuristics made easy: An effort-reduction framework. Psychological Bulletin, 134(2), 207–222. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.207

Simon, B., & Brown, R. (1987). Perceived intragroup homogeneity in minority-majority contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(4), 703–711. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.703

Strack, F., Bahník, Š., & Mussweiler, T. (2016). Anchoring: Accessibility as a cause of judgmental assimilation. Current Opinion in Psychology, 12, 67–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.06.005

Strack, F., & Mussweiler, T. (1997). Explaining the enigmatic anchoring effect: Mechanisms of selective accessibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(3), 437–446. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.3.437

Todorov, A. (2000). The accessibility and applicability of knowledge: Predicting context effects in national surveys. Public Opinion Quarterly, 64(4), 429-451. https://doi.org/10.1086/318639

Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185(4157), 1124–1131. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.185.4157.1124

Van Bavel, J. J., Packer, D. J., & Cunningham, W. A. (2008). The neural substrates of in-group bias: A functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation. Psychological Science, 19(11), 1131–1139. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02214.x

Wang, J., Cui, R., Stolarz-Fantino, S., Fantino, E., & Liu, X. (2022). Differences in mood, optimism, and risk-taking behavior between American and Chinese college students. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 781609. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.781609

Yuen, K. S., & Lee, T. M. (2003). Could mood state affect risk-taking decisions? Journal of Affective Disorders, 75(1), 11–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0165-0327(02)00022-8

Zhang, R., Brennan, T. J., & Lo, A. W. (2014). The origin of risk aversion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 111(50), 17777-17782. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.140675511

Additional References (may be of interest)

Banaji, M.R., & Hardin, C.D. (1996). Automatic Stereotyping. Psychological Science, 7(3), 136-141. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00346.x

Blair, I. V., Ma, J. E., & Lenton, A. P. (2001). Imagining stereotypes away: The moderation of implicit stereotypes through mental imagery. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(5), 828-841. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.828

Gigerenzer, G., & Gaissmaier, W. (2011). Heuristic decision making. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 451–482. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120709-145346

Glockner, A., & Betsch, T. (2008). Modeling option and strategy choices with connectionist networks: Towards an integrative model of automatic and deliberate decision making. Judgment and Decision Making, 3(3), 215-228. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1930297500002424

Hamilton, D.L., & Sherman, J.W. (1994). Stereotypes. In R. S. Wyer, Jr. & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition: Basic processes; Applications (2nd ed., pp. 1–68). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Johnson, K. E., & Mervis, C. B. (1997). Effects of varying levels of expertise on the basic level of categorization. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 126(3), 248–277. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.126.3.248

Kawakami, K., Amodio, D. M., & Hugenberg, K. (2017). Intergroup perception and cognition: An integrative framework for understanding the causes and consequences of social categorization. In J. M. Olson (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (pp. 1-80). Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aesp.2016.10.001

Loewenstein, G., & Lerner, J. S. (2003). The role of affect in decision making. In R. J. Davidson, K. R. Scherer, & H. H. Goldsmith (Eds.), Handbook of affective sciences (pp. 619–642). Oxford University Press.

Park, B., & Judd, C. M. (1990). Measures and models of perceived group variability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(2), 173–191. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.2.173

Schneider, W., & Chein, J.M. (2010). Controlled & automatic processing: Behavior, theory, and biological mechanisms. Cognitive Science, 27(3), 525-559. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog2703_8

Shiv, B., & Fedorikhin, A. (1999). Heart and mind in conflict: The interplay of affect and cognition in consumer decision making. Journal of Consumer Research, 26(3). https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1086/209563

Taylor, M. K., Marsh, E. J., & Samanez-Larkin, G. R. (2023). Heuristic decision-making across adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 38(6), 508–518. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000726

Media Attributions

Semantic Memory & Mental Representations
Gif created by TRU Open Press from the following modified images:

• Woman Sitting by Christina Morillo is used under Pexels license.
• Man and Woman using a computer system by Tima Miroshnichenko is used under Pexels license.
• Startup Software Company by cottonbro studio is used under Pexels license.
• Woman jogging by Ketut Subiyanto is used under Pexels license.
• Soccer game by Alexander Nadrilyanski is used under Pexels license.
• Basketball Player by Jose Ricardo Barraza Morachis is used under Pexels license.

AARP. (2016, April 8). Millennials Show Us What ‘Old’ Looks Like | Disrupt Aging [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lYdNjrUs4NM

Fascinating Psychology. (2016, Dec 14). Status Quo Bias [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V7TUFH6udHA

Sanlam Investments. (2016, May 13). Prospect Theory (explained in a minute) – Behavioural Finance[Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sM91d5I36Po

Facundo Verdun. (2017, June 25). I, Robot – Human emotion scene. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=siHfHUm3HGE

Pixar. (2021, June 4). Sea Monsters Clip | Disney and Pixar’s Luca | Disney+. YouTube.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LPkoCqMiBFA

MGM. (2022, August 16). Legally Blonde (2001) | Elle’s First Day at Harvard Law. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uyIyi5QwbWc

John Maverick. (2023, August 30). Set It Up (2018) Scene: “Did you want dinner?” / The pickle. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHA0O2K0JE4

Philana Payton. (2017, February 22). The Inevitable Defeat of Mister and Pete – Character Defining Decisions. Critical Commons. https://criticalcommons.org/view?m=rXzhAnGtA

Jadrian Wooten. (2017, February 22). P&R: Stairs are a Young Man’s Game. Critical Commons.https://criticalcommons.org/view?m=yCb7brkgV